Ulf Sandberg, Jerzy A.Ejsmont
"Tyre/Road Noise Reference Book"

Pobierz broszurę o książce (plik pdf 442 kB)

Pobierz formularz zamówienia (plik doc 32 kB)

Więcej informacji na stronie wydawcy www.informex.info

More information can be found at www.informex.info

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 BASIC TERMINOLOGY 5

3 BRIEF FACTS ABOUT SOUND AND NOISE 11

3.1 SOUND AND NOISE 13

3.2 SOUND PRESSURE 13

3.3 SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL AND THE DECIBEL (DB) 14

3.4 LOUDNESS AND LOUDNESS LEVEL 14

3.5 HOW AN INCREASE OR DECREASE IN SOUND IS PERCEIVED 14

3.6 SOUND INTENSITY AND SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL 14

3.7 FREQUENCY, WAVELENGTH AND SPECTRUM 16

3.8 FREQUENCY WEIGHTING AND THE DB(A) "UNIT" 17

3.9 TIME WEIGHTING AND THE EQUIVALENT SOUND LEVEL, LAEQ 18

3.10 ADDITION OF SOUND SOURCES 19

3.11 SOUND IN AIR AND IN OTHER MEDIA OR MATERIALS 19

3.12 EFFECTS OF NOISE 20

3.12.1 General 20

3.12.2 Fatal or damaging effects 20

3.12.3 Extra-auditory effects (health) 20

3.12.4 Sleep disturbance 20

3.12.5 Interference with communication and intellectual performance 20

3.12.6 Annoyance 21

3.12.7 Monetary effects 21

4 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES 23

4.1 NOISE PROBLEMS IN ANCIENT TIMES 25

4.2 GENERAL NOISE CONTROL 25

4.3 TYRE/ROAD NOISE ISSUES IN EARLIER TIMES 27

4.4 EARLY POLISH VEHICLE NOISE STUDY 28

4.5 MEASURING METHODS 32

4.6 DEVELOPMENT OF VEHICLE NOISE EMISSION - AN I-INCE STUDY 33

4.6.1 The I-INCE Initiative 33

4.6.2 Background 33

4.6.3 Extent of the Study 34

4.6.4 Review of Change in Limits 34

4.6.5 Type of Tests - Review of Measuring Procedure 34

4.6.6 Results - Annoyance and Community Noise Changes 36

4.6.7 Results - Change of Vehicle Noise Emission Values Measured During Type Approval 36

4.6.8 Results - Noise Changes in Actual Traffic 36

4.6.9 Results - Comparison of Japanese with Other Experiences 37

4.6.10 Reasons for the Limited Effectiveness 38

4.6.11 Recommendations from the study 39

4.6.12 Concluding remarks 40

4.7 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NOISE EMISSION FROM TYRES DURING THE 20TH CENTURY 40

5 TYRE/ROAD NOISE AS PART OF VEHICLE NOISE 43

5.1 VEHICLE NOISE - GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 45

5.2 VEHICLE NOISE SOURCES 46

5.3 RELATION BETWEEN POWER UNIT NOISE AND TYRE/ROAD NOISE 50

5.3.1 General relation 50

5.3.2 Passenger cars 51

5.3.3 Trucks and busses 52

5.4 SOURCES DIFFICULT TO DISTINGUISH FROM TYRE/ROAD NOISE 55

6 BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT TYRES AND ROAD SURFACES 57

6.1 TYRES 59

6.1.1 Early history of wheels and tyres 59

6.1.2 Refinement of pneumatic tyre construction 59

6.1.3 Tread pattern types 61

6.1.4 Tyre components, markings, terminology and standards 67

6.1.5 Retreaded tyres 68

6.1.6 Studded tyres 72

6.1.7 Speculations about the future 73

6.2 ROAD SURFACES 74

6.2.1 Historical notes 74

6.2.2 Basic construction features of the most common road surface types 78

6.2.3 Some less common surface types 84

6.2.4 Some notes about bitumen binders 86

6.2.5 The most commonly used surfaces in various situations 87

6.2.6 Standard specifications for road surfaces 88

6.2.7 Discussion of some basic road surface terms 88

6.2.8 What is a "Low Noise Road Surface" 88

6.3 ROAD SURFACE TEXTURE TERMINOLOGY AND CHARACTERISATION 89

6.3.1 The use of texture profile curve data 89

6.3.2 The use of three-dimensional surface data 93

6.3.3 Other surface characterisation methods and further reading 93

7 TYRE/ROAD NOISE SOURCES AND GENERATION MECHANISMS 95

7.1 GENERATION MECHANISMS 97

7.1.1 General 97

7.1.2 Exploration methods 97

7.1.3 Examples: Early studies of noise-texture and vibration-noise relations 97

7.1.4 Wave types in tyres 103

7.1.5 The impact mechanism: Vibrations induced by tyre tread or surface texture impact 104

7.1.6 Tread band versus sidewall vibrations 107

7.1.7 Tyre structural resonances 107

7.1.8 Tyre/rim bending waves 109

7.1.9 Radiation of sound from rim vibrations 109

7.1.10 Tangential stick-slip motions (scrubbing) 109

7.1.11 Adhesion stick-snap 111

7.1.12 Summary of the stick-slip and stick-snap mechanisms 112

7.1.13 Torus cavity resonance in the tyre tube 113

7.1.14 Air turbulence 114

7.1.15 Air pumping 115

7.1.16 Air resonant radiation (Helmholtz resonators) 119

7.1.17 Pipe resonances in channels formed in the foot-print 120

7.1.18 Amplification effect by the acoustical horn between tyre tread and road surface 122

7.1.19 Mechanical impedance influence 123

7.1.20 Sound radiation from the road? 123

7.1.21 Effect of the moving medium on acoustic radiation 124

7.1.22 Crossover frequencies 124

7.1.23 Wet surface generation mechanisms 124

7.1.24 Studded tyre generation mechanisms 126

7.1.25 The remarkable peak at 700-1300 Hz 126

7.2 THE LOCATION OF THE MAJOR SOURCES AND RADIATION AREAS 127

7.2.1 In general about methods, etc 127

7.2.2 Measurements utilising sound intensity technique 128

7.2.3 Measurements utilising the vibrational mapping technique 133

7.2.4 Measurements utilising the near-field holography (NAH) technique 133

7.2.5 Measurements utilising the spatial transformation of sound fields (STSF) and time domain holography (TDH) techniques 135

7.3 DIRECTIVITY 138

7.3.1 Introduction 138

7.3.2 Sound radiation to front, side and rear positions 138

7.3.3 Directivity in the horizontal plane 141

7.3.4 Directivity in the vertical plane 142

7.3.5 Three-dimensional directivity 143

7.3.6 Conclusions 143

7.4 SOURCE LOCATION AND RADIATION - CONCLUSIONS 144

7.5 MODELS 145

7.5.1 Introduction 145

7.5.2 Simple, empirical models 145

7.5.3 More complicated, theoretical and semi-empirical models 148

7.5.4 "Complete" models 151

7.5.5 Input data 152

7.5.6 Commercial models 153

7.5.7 Ongoing and expected model development 154

8 TYRE/ROAD NOISE EMISSION - GENERAL INFLUENCES AND TYPICAL DATA 155

8.1 INTRODUCTION 157

8.2 TYRE INFLUENCE IN GENERAL TERMS 157

8.2.1 Range 157

8.2.2 Typical differences between types of tyres 158

8.3 ROAD SURFACE INFLUENCE IN GENERAL TERMS 159

8.4 TYPICAL TIME HISTORIES 161

8.5 TYPICAL SOUND LEVELS (LAMAX) VERSUS SPEED 162

8.6 TYPICAL SOUND LEVELS WITH A CLOSE-PROXIMITY METHOD - PLUS MORE ON THE TYRE INFLUENCE 164

8.7 TYPICAL FREQUENCY SPECTRA 165

8.8 NOISE INCREASE FOR WET ROAD 167

9 DRIVER INFLUENCE ON TYRE/ROAD NOISE EMISSION 169

9.1 SPEED 171

9.1.1 Introduction 171

9.1.2 General noise-speed relationship 171

9.1.3 The A+B logV relationship 172

9.1.4 The very useful A and B constants 175

9.1.5 Local irregularities and tonal components 177

9.1.6 Noise-speed relations for interior noise 179

9.2 TANGENTIAL FORCES 182

9.2.1 Driving and braking forces (longitudinal slip) 182

9.2.2 Side forces (lateral slip) 189

9.2.3 Possible mechanisms responsible for the tyre slip effects 193

9.2.4 Influence of road crossfall 195

9.3 TYRE LOAD AND INFLATION 195

9.3.1 Various investigations 195

9.3.2 Polish study 198

9.3.3 Bridgestone study 201

9.3.4 Discussion of mechanisms 202

9.3.5 Influence on interior noise 203

9.3.6 Conclusions 204

10 INFLUENCE ON NOISE EMISSION OF VARIOUS TYRE-RELATED PARAMETERS 205

10.1 NUMBER OF TYRES 207

10.2 WIDTH AND OTHER DIMENSIONAL INFLUENCES 208

10.2.1 General considerations 208

10.2.2 Brief review of earlier investigations 209

10.2.3 Results obtained at TUG for a large number of tyres 210

10.2.4 Results obtained for specific tyre brands 212

10.2.5 A wider look at the width relation 213

10.2.6 Truck versus car tyre sizes 214

10.2.7 The use of oversized tyres and wheels 215

10.2.8 Conclusions 215

10.3 INFLUENCE OF INNER TYRE STRUCTURE 215

10.4 TYRE RUNOUT, UNBALANCE AND OTHER NON-UNIFORMITIES 216

10.5 RUBBER HARDNESS AND OTHER MATERIAL PROPERTIES 217

10.5.1 Introduction 217

10.5.2 Empirical data 218

10.5.3 Model calculations 220

10.5.4 Conclusions 222

10.6 TREAD PATTERN 222

10.6.1 Randomisation 222

10.6.2 Ventilation 226

10.6.3 General layout of grooves and block shapes in the tread pattern 228

10.7 DIRECTION OF ROTATION AND ASYMMETRIES BETWEEN SIDES 229

10.8 CONDITION (WEAR AND AGEING) 233

10.9 RETREADED TYRES 238

10.10 STUDDED TYRES 242

10.10.1 Overall characteristics 242

10.10.2 Specific studies 243

11 ROAD SURFACE INFLUENCE ON NOISE EMISSION 245

11.1 INFLUENCING PARAMETERS 247

11.2 SOME BASICS OF ROAD SURFACE CONSTRUCTION 247

11.3 MACRO- AND MEGATEXTURE: INFLUENCE ON OVERALL NOISE LEVELS 248

11.4 MACRO- AND MEGATEXTURE: MORE SOPHISTICATED TEXTURE DESCRIPTORS 249

11.5 MACRO- AND MEGATEXTURE: RELATIONS BETWEEN SPECTRAL LEVELS OF NOISE AND TEXTURE 249

11.6 ISOTROPIC AND ANISOTROPIC (ORIENTATED) TEXTURES 253

11.7 EFFECT OF JOINTS IN BRIDGES AND CEMENT CONCRETE SURFACES 253

11.8 BRIDGE DECK SURFACES 253

11.9 SURFACE COLOUR 254

11.10 UNEVENNESS 255

11.11 MICROTEXTURE AND FRICTION 255

11.11.1 Basic and derived properties 255

11.11.2 Noise-friction relations measured in field experiments and using conventional wet friction descriptors 256

11.11.3 Field experiments at VTI considering the texture-friction interaction 257

11.11.4 Comparison of tyre/road noise on pairs of surfaces with similar macrotexture but different microtexture 259

11.11.5 Laboratory tests with talcum injection 262

11.11.6 Other observations 263

11.11.7 Conclusions regarding microtexture and friction influence 265

11.11.8 Implications for road surface construction 266

11.12 POROSITY 266

11.12.1 Terminology - What is a porous surface? 266

11.12.2 Modelling of Acoustical Reduction Properties 267

11.12.3 Effects 267

11.12.4 Noise reduction principles 267

11.12.5 The Importance of Air Voids and Thickness Considered Together 269

11.12.6 Modified Bituminous Binders 270

11.13 STIFFNESS 271

11.14 AGE AND WEAR OF THE SURFACE 272

11.15 AMOUNT OF WATER ON THE SURFACE 273

11.16 OVERALL EFFECT 275

12 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS ON TYRE/ROAD NOISE EMISSION 277

12.1 TEMPERATURE 279

12.1.1 Introduction 279

12.1.2 Some Examples of Measured Effects 279

12.1.3 Relation between air, road and tyre temperatures 282

12.1.4 Standardisation considerations - Summary of observations 282

12.1.5 Possible model for noise - temperature relation based on tyre material properties 283

12.1.6 Temperature corrections currently applied in standards or regulations 284

12.1.7 Road surface colour effect 284

12.2 HUMIDITY 284

12.3 WIND 285

13 INFLUENCE OF VEHICLE CONSTRUCTION ON NOISE EMISSION 287

13.1 SUMMARY OF VEHICLE EFFECTS 289

13.2 VEHICLE GEOMETRY 291

13.3 RIM EFFECT 292

13.4 EFFECT OF WHEEL HOUSING AND ABSORPTION 294

13.5 PROPAGATION AND SCREENING EFFECTS 295

14 STANDARDS AND METHODS FOR VEHICLE AND TYRE/ROAD NOISE MEASUREMENT 297

14.1 OVERVIEW AND SUMMARY 299

14.1.1 General 299

14.1.2 Advanced methods for research purposes (NAH, STSF, LDV, etc.) 299

14.1.3 Measurements aimed at comparing tyres 299

14.1.4 Measurements aimed at comparing road surfaces 300

14.2 THE ACCELERATION PASS-BY METHOD (ISO 362 AND SIMILAR) 301

14.3 THE COAST-BY METHOD 302

14.4 REFERENCE SURFACE (ISO 10844) 304

14.5 THE CONTROLLED PASS-BY METHOD (CPB) 305

14.6 THE STATISTICAL PASS-BY METHOD (SPB) 306

14.7 THE CLOSE-PROXIMITY METHOD (CPX) 307

14.7.1 Description of the method 307

14.7.2 Subjective assessment of advantages and disadvantages 313

14.8 THE TRAILER COAST-BY METHOD 313

14.8.1 Description of the method 313

14.8.2 Subjective assessment of advantages and disadvantages 314

14.9 LABORATORY DRUM METHOD 315

14.9.1 Description of the method 315

14.9.2 Subjective assessment of advantages and disadvantages 316

14.9.3 Replica road surfaces for drums 317

14.9.4 Separation of tyre/road contributions by synchronisation 320

14.10 GENERAL ASSESSMENT OF THE TEST METHODS 321

14.11 SOUND ABSORPTION MEASUREMENTS 321

14.12 ROAD SURFACE MEASUREMENTS 323

15 MEASURING METHODS – DISCUSSION OF SOME MAJOR TOPICS 325

15.1 BASIC OBJECTIVE MEASURES 327

15.1.1 Time-history-based overall levels 327

15.1.2 Choice of measure - Microphone distance effect (7.5 or 15 m) 329

15.1.3 Average levels for steady-state sound 329

15.1.4 Speed correction 330

15.1.5 Time and frequency weighting 330

15.1.6 Frequency spectra 331

15.2 SOME FACTORS AFFECTING TYRE/ROAD NOISE MEASUREMENTS 333

15.2.1 Vehicle 333

15.2.2 Load and inflation influence 333

15.2.3 Wind noise around the vehicle 333

15.2.4 Transmission (axle) noise 334

15.2.5 Background noise – in general 335

15.2.6 Background noise – Pass-by methods 336

15.2.7 Background noise – CPX method 337

15.2.8 Some basics of sound propagation and reflections 340

15.2.9 Sound propagation and reflection problems for the CPX method 342

15.2.10 Meteorological conditions and climate 342

15.2.11 Choice of microphone position 343

15.2.12 Microphone distance 345

15.2.13 Influence of drum curvature when using the Drum method 350

15.3 REFERENCE SURFACES 353

15.3.1 Introduction 353

15.3.2 Reference for road surface "noisiness" comparison 353

15.3.3 Standard surface(s) for vehicle testing 353

15.3.4 Standard surface(s) for tyre testing 353

15.4 TEST TYRES OFTEN REFERRED TO IN THIS BOOK 356

15.5 REFERENCE TYRES 357

15.5.1 General principles 357

15.5.2 Reference tyres for various purposes currently available 357

15.5.3 Reference tyres in the CPX method 358

15.5.4 Storage and preservation of tyres 360

15.5.5 Reference tyres - Recommendation 360

16 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND OTHER EQUIPMENT 361

16.1 BASIC MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 363

16.2 EQUIPMENT USED BY THE AUTHORS 363

16.3 VEHICLES USED WORLDWIDE FOR CONDUCTING CPX MEASUREMENTS 364

16.4 EXAMPLES OF VEHICLES FOR TRAILER COAST-BY MEASUREMENTS 370

16.5 EXAMPLES OF LABORATORY DRUM FACILITIES 371

16.6 EXAMPLE OF SOUND ABSORPTION MEASURING EQUIPMENT 374

16.7 ISO TEST TRACK SURFACES 374

16.8 MANUFACTURING OF REPLICA ROAD SURFACES FOR DRUMS 374

16.8.1 "Drum Paving" 374

16.8.2 "Drum Segment Moulding" 376

17 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE METHODS 381

17.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 383

17.2 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SPB, CPB AND CPX METHODS 383

17.3 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE COAST-BY, CPX AND DRUM METHODS 384

17.4 CPX VS DRUM METHOD 387

17.5 CONCLUSIONS 389

18 LOW NOISE COMPROMISING SAFETY OR OTHER IMPORTANT PARAMETERS? 391

18.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING POTENTIALLY CONFLICTING REQUIREMENTS 393

18.2 FRICTION 393

18.2.1 Introduction 393

18.2.2 Studies before 1997 393

18.2.3 The VTI-TUG experiments 393

18.2.4 The TÜV/UBA Experiments in Germany 395

18.2.5 Discussion and conclusions 396

18.3 ROLLING RESISTANCE 397

18.3.1 Introduction 397

18.3.2 Experimental work 398

18.3.3 The VTI-TUG experiments 399

18.3.4 The TÜV/UBA Experiments in Germany 400

18.4 TYRE WEAR 401

19 TYRE/ROAD NOISE ISSUES RELATED TO METHODS AND MODELS 403

19.1 TREAD PATTERN - ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS 405

19.1.1 General considerations 405

19.1.2 Mathematical representation of a tread pattern 405

19.1.3 Tread randomisation by simple algorithms 407

19.1.4 Tread randomisation by complicated algorithms 408

19.2 TYRE/ROAD NOISE ISSUES IN TRAFFIC NOISE PREDICTION MODELS 409

19.2.1 Road surface correction - General 409

19.2.2 The use of road surface corrections in the Nordic prediction model 409

19.2.3 The current use of road surface corrections in other prediction models 410

19.2.4 Road surface correction - New advanced table 412

19.2.5 Wet road, winter tyres or studded tyres 414

19.3 MODEL FOR PREDICTION OF ROAD SURFACE INFLUENCE ON NOISE 414

19.3.1 General structure of the model 414

19.3.2 Submodel based on macro- and megatexture influence 414

19.3.3 Submodel based on age influence 414

19.3.4 Submodel based on porosity influence 415

19.3.5 Submodel for road surface influence on noise from heavy vehicles based on influence on noise from
cars 415

19.3.6 Combining the submodels 418

20 NOISE REDUCTION MEASURES RELATED TO TYRES 419

20.1 INTRODUCTION 421

20.2 TYRE REQUIREMENTS IN GENERAL 421

20.3 LOW NOISE TYRES 422

20.4 SELECTION OF TYRES FROM THE EXISTING POPULATION 422

20.5 THE MOST QUIET TYRE AVAILABLE 423

20.6 SELECTION OF TYRES WITH RESPECT TO SECTION WIDTH 424

20.7 TREAD PATTERN DESIGN GUIDELINES 425

20.7.1 Potential influence 425

20.7.2 General considerations 425

20.7.3 Guidelines 425

20.8 IMPROVING THE TYRE TORUS CAVITY 427

20.9 FILLING THE TYRE WITH SOME SOLID MATERIAL 427

20.10 TYRE INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION 428

20.11 RUBBER COMPOUND 429

20.12 TYRE INTERACTION WITH THE RIM AND VEHICLE 430

20.13 AFFECTING THE ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE CLOSE TO THE SOURCE 430

20.14 TYRE SCREENING AND OTHER VEHICLE MEASURES 430

20.15 LOW-NOISE ALTERNATIVE TO STUDDED TYRES ? 430

20.16 THE TRIAS MODEL 431

20.17 SOME LOW NOISE TYRE EXPERIMENTS 431

20.17.1 The German program of the 1980's 431

20.17.2 The TINO project 433

20.17.3 Quiet truck tyre at Continental 433

20.18 A VEHICLE MANUFACTURER'S TYRE NOISE REQUIREMENTS 433

21 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR NOISE REDUCTION RELATED TO ROAD SURFACES 435

21.1 WHAT IS A "LOW NOISE ROAD SURFACE"? 437

21.2 TEXTURE OPTIMISATION FOR LOW NOISE 437

21.3 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR NOISE REDUCTION RELATED TO ROAD SURFACES 438

21.4 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR LOW NOISE ROAD SURFACES 438

21.4.1 Introduction 438

21.4.2 Guidelines with respect to Microtexture and Adhesion 438

21.4.3 Guidelines with respect to Macrotexture 438

21.4.4 Guidelines with respect to Megatexture 439

21.4.5 Guidelines with respect to Texture of Porous Surfaces 441

21.4.6 Summary of texture design: Desirable texture spectrum 441

21.4.7 Guidelines with respect to Binder 442

21.4.8 Guidelines with respect to Colour 442

21.4.9 Guidelines with respect to Porosity 442

21.4.10 Guidelines with respect to the Use of Rubber 443

21.4.11 Guidelines with respect to Special Treatment of Cement Concrete Surfaces 444

21.4.12 Maintenance of low noise characteristics 444

21.5 POSITIVE VERSUS NEGATIVE SKEW 445

21.6 SPECIAL MEASURES TO REDUCE NOISE ON CEMENT CONCRETE SURFACES 445

21.6.1 General 445

21.6.2 Randomisation and dimensions of grooves or tines 445

21.6.3 Appropriate orientation of the texture (longitudinal texturing) 446

21.6.4 Grinding 446

21.6.5 Exposed aggregate cement concrete 447

21.6.6 Texture optimisation in general 448

21.6.7 Topping with a surface dressing with small chippings 450

21.6.8 Topping with a rubberised mix (GPUX) 450

21.6.9 Porous cement concrete 451

21.6.10 Cement concrete block pavements 451

21.7 BRIDGE DECK SURFACES 452

22 LOW NOISE ROAD SURFACES - A STATE-OF-THE-ART REVIEW 453

22.1 DISTINCTION BETWEEN THIS CHAPTER AND CHAPTER 21 455

22.2 LOW NOISE SURFACES IN HISTORY 455

22.3 NON-POROUS LOW NOISE ROAD SURFACES 455

22.3.1 Surface treatments 455

22.3.2 Thin surfaces 458

22.3.3 Expanded clay 459

22.4 POROUS LOW NOISE ROAD SURFACES 459

22.4.1 Terminology 459

22.4.2 Some historical notes 460

22.4.3 Literature 460

22.4.4 Construction: Grading 460

22.4.5 Construction: Binders 460

22.4.6 Summary of Noise Reduction Mechanisms 462

22.4.7 Porous Cement Concrete 462

22.4.8 Rejuvenation of porous surfaces 464

22.4.9 Clogging and Restoration of Clogged Surfaces 464

22.4.10 The Double-layer Concept ("Twinlay") 467

22.4.11 Various remarks 468

22.5 COMBINATION OF POROUS SURFACE AND NOISE BARRIERS 469

22.6 EXAMPLES OF CURRENT USE AND EXPERIENCE OF POROUS SURFACES 469

22.7 CURRENT USE OF OTHER SURFACES WITH LOW NOISE CHARACTERISTICS 470

22.8 FUTURISTIC SURFACES 471

22.9 INCENTIVES FOR USING LOW NOISE ROAD SURFACES 471

22.9.1 Economic compensation in the Netherlands 471

22.9.2 HAPAS in the U.K. 471

22.9.3 Other incentives 472

22.10 CASE STUDY: UNITED KINGDOM 472

22.10.1 Delugrip 472

22.10.2 Colsoft 473

22.11 CASE STUDY: NEW ZEALAND 473

22.12 CASE STUDY: DENMARK 474

22.13 CASE STUDY: THE NETHERLANDS 477

22.13.1 General 477

22.13.2 The Noise Pilot project and its road surface ideas 477

22.13.3 The Modular Road Surface project 477

23 POTENTIAL NOISE REDUCTION BY CHANGED DRIVING BEHAVIOUR 479

23.1 GENERAL INFORMATION 481

23.2 SPEED CONTROL 481

23.3 CONTROL OF ACCELERATIONS AND DECELERATIONS 482

23.4 CONTROL OF SIDE FORCES 483

24 OTHER TYRE/ROAD NOISE REDUCTION METHODS 485

24.1 SCREENING OF TYRES BY ENCLOSURES OR DISCS 487

24.1.1 The Akustikbyrĺn/VTI projects 1974-77 487

24.1.2 Screening by means of discs and absorbers 490

24.1.3 Screening by means of partial wheel covers 491

24.1.4 Conclusions 491

24.2 ACTIVE NOISE CANCELLATION 492

25 FUTURISTIC TYRE DESIGNS 493

25.1 THE COMPOSITE WHEEL 495

25.1.1 Introduction 495

25.1.2 Swedish trials in 1988-89 495

25.1.3 Trials in 1991 497

25.1.4 Trials in 1999-2001 499

25.1.5 Conclusions 500

25.2 THE POROUS TREAD 500

26 FUTURISTIC ROAD SURFACE DESIGNS 501

26.1 THE POROELASTIC ROAD SURFACE 503

26.1.1 What is a poroelastic surface? 503

26.1.2 History and early trials in Sweden 503

26.1.3 Trial in Norway 505

26.1.4 Tests with mixes of rubber and sand 506

26.1.5 Ongoing projects at PWRI, Japan, and VTI, Sweden 506

26.1.6 Potential use of poroelastic surfaces 509

26.1.7 Conclusions 510

26.1.8 Potential use of scrap tyres 511

26.2 THE "EUPHONIC ROAD" 511

26.3 OTHER IDEAS 511

27 ASPECTS OF HUMAN PERCEPTION AND SOUND QUALITY RELATED TO TYRE/ROAD NOISE 513

27.1 SOUND QUALITY ASPECTS 515

27.2 TONAL NOISE 515

27.3 RESULTS OF STUDIES OF SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTION OF TYRE/ROAD NOISE 516

27.3.1 VTI results 516

27.3.2 Results of various studies attempting to relate objective and subjective measures 517

27.3.3 Results of a study in Japan 518

27.3.4 Results of a study by TRL 518

27.3.5 Study in Copenhagen concerning double-layer porous asphalt 520

27.3.6 Conclusions 520

27.4 SPECIAL REACTIONS OF RESIDENTS 521

28 THE EU DIRECTIVE ON TYRE/ROAD NOISE EMISSION 523

28.1 HISTORY OF ATTEMPTS TO INTRODUCE TYRE/ROAD NOISE EMISSION REQUIREMENTS 525

28.2 THE NOISE REQUIREMENT IN EU DIRECTIVE 92/23/EEC 525

28.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE DIRECTIVE 528

28.4 ESTIMATED EFFECT OF THE DIRECTIVE 529

28.5 TYRE/ROAD NOISE LIMITATION INDIRECTLY IMPOSED BY THE VEHICLE NOISE EMISSION LIMITS 530

28.6 SOME VIEWS EXPRESSED WITH REGARD TO THE DIRECTIVE 530

28.7 FUTURE LIMITS FOR FRICTION AND ROLLING RESISTANCE? 531

28.8 THE EXCEPTIONAL SPEED REQUIREMENTS 532

29 COSTS & BENEFITS OF LOW NOISE TYRES AND ROAD SURFACES 535

29.1 INTRODUCTION 537

29.2 NOISE DAMAGE COSTS 537

29.3 ESTIMATION OF TYRE NOISE COSTS 537

29.4 ESTIMATION OF COSTS AND BENEFITS APPLIED TO LOW NOISE ROAD SURFACES AND NOISE BARRIERS 538

30 OVERVIEW OF STANDARDS, REQUIREMENTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL LABELLING SYSTEMS 541

30.1 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS AND REQUIREMENTS 543

30.1.1 Overview 543

30.1.2 Measuring standards 543

30.1.3 International regulations 544

30.2 NOISE DECLARATION OF TYRES AND ENVIRONMENTAL LABELLING 545

30.2.1 Noise declaration 545

30.2.2 Environmental labelling 545

30.3 LIMITS WITH REGARD TO ROAD SURFACE INFLUENCE 547

31 TYRE/ROAD SOUND - USEFULNESS OF THE SOUND EMISSION 549

31.1 INTRODUCTION 551

31.2 INDICATION OF TYRE USEAGE 551

31.3 INDICATION OF ROAD HOLDING 551

31.4 SAFETY IN THE ROAD ENVIRONMENT - IS QUIET TOO QUIET? 552

31.5 INDICATION OF ROAD CONDITION FOR DRIVERS 553

31.6 ROAD CONDITION MONITORING 554

31.7 RUMBLE STRIPS FOR APPROACH WARNING 555

31.8 SOUND MESSAGE AND MUSIC FROM THE ROAD 558

31.8.1 Talking pavement 558

31.8.2 Music road in Villepinte, France 559

32 SEARCHING THE LITERATURE 561

32.1 THE "TRN-BIBL" DATABASE 563

32.1.1 History 563

32.1.2 General outline of the Bibliography 563

32.1.3 Special features 563

32.1.4 Change of interest in certain topics with time 565

32.1.5 Conclusions 566

32.1.6 Final remarks 566

32.2 OTHER DATA BASES 566

32.3 MAJOR INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES 567

33 CONCLUDING DISCUSSION 568

34 REFERENCES 573

35 ANNEX 1 605

34 INDEX 613

 

 Data ostatniej aktualizacji: 14 października 2006
Witryna istnieje od stycznia 1999 r.

Optymalizowane dla rozdzielczości 800x600, IE 4+

Webmaster road.pl
Copyright 1999 - 2005  by Krzysztof Błażejowski
zasady korzystania z witryny www.road.pl